| Emperor's and Dynasty's of Axumite Empire though the 12th century
Ezana of Axum (Ge'ez ዔዛና ʿĒzānā unvocalized ዐዘነ ʿzn. also spelled Aezana or Aizan), was ruler of the Axumite Kingdom (c.321s – c.360) located in present-day in Tigray, northern Ethiopia, Eritrea, Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia, northern Somalia, Djibouti, northern Sudan, and southern Egypt; he himself employed the style "king of Saba and Salhen, Himyar and Dhu-Raydan."[1]. Tradition states that Ezana succeeded his father Ella Amida (Ousanas) while still a child and his mother, Sofya served as regent Ousanas (c.320) was a king of Axum. S. C. Munro-Hay believes that it is "very likely" that Ousanas is the king to whom Aedesius and Frumentius were brought; this king is called in Ethiopian tradition "Ella Allada" or Ella Amida.1 "Ella Amida" would be his throne name, although "Ousanas" is the name that appears on his coins. W.R.O. Hahn, in a study published in 1983, identifies Sembrouthes, who is known only from an inscription found in Daqqi Mahari in modern Eritrea with Ousanas. If correct, this would give Ousanas a reign of at least 27 years.2 Coins with the name of this ruler were found in the late 1990s at archeological sites in India.3 Wazeba (early 4th century) was a king of Axum in northeastern Africa. He is primarily known from the coins he minted during his reign. He was the first king to write the legends of his coins in Ge'ez, and the only king of Axum to use that language on his gold currency.1 S. C. Munro-Hay suggests, based on a number of recovered coins that use a die from Wazeba on the obverse and a die from Ousanas on the reverse, that these two kings may have been co-rulers.2 Aphilas (early 4th century) was a king of Axum. He is known from the coins he minted, which are characterized by a number of experiments in imagery on the obverse, and being issued in fractions of weight that none of his successors copied.[1] G.W.B. Huntingford suggests that he was the ruler who erected the anonymous inscription at Adulis known as the Monumentum Adulitanum.[2] Endubis (c.270 - c.300) was a king of Axum. He was among the earliest rulers of Aksum, and Sub-SaharaAfrica for that matter, to mint coins. These coins were issued in gold and silver. On the coins of Endubis so far recovered, either of two mottos were engraved. On some coins he described himself as "BACIΛEYC AΧWMITW", "king of Axum". On others appeared the motto "BICI ΔAXY", "bisi Dakhu"; this is the first appearance of the title "bisi", which S. C. Munro-Hay believes is related to the Ge'ez word "be'esya", "man of".[1] DTWNS (vocalized by historians as Datawnas) was a king of Axum (c.260). He is mentioned with his son ZQRNS (vocalized as "Zaqarnas") in an inscription from al-Mis`al in Yemen which Yasir Yuhan'im erected after defeating father and son.1 Sembrouthes was a king of Axum. He is known only from a single inscription in Greek that was found at Deqemhare or Deqqi Mehari in modern Eritrea, which is dated to his 24th regnal year. He is the first known ruler in the lands later ruled by the Emperor of Ethiopia to adopt the title "King of kings". S. C. Munro-Hay places his reign in a gap between `DBH and DTWNS, or c.250.1 However, W.R.O. Hahn, in a study published in 1983, assigns Sembrouthes to the 4th century, between Aphilas and Ezana, and identifies him with Ousanas or "Ella Amida".2 Munro-Hay also suggests that Sembrouthes may have been the ruler who erected the anonymous Monumentum Adulitanum, an inscription at Adulis that Cosmas Indicopleustes made a copy of for king Kaleb of Axum.3 DBH [vocalized as `Azaba or `Adhebah] (fl. 3rd century) was a king of Axum, on the territory of modern-day Ethiopia, who ruled c. 230–240. He and his son GRMT (possibly vocalized as "Girma") are known through South Arabian inscriptions which mention Shamir, king of Dhu-Raydan and Himyar asking for his help against the Sabaean kings.1 GDRT (also GDR, vocalized by historians as Gadarat) was a king of the EritreanKingdom of Aksum (c.200), known for being the first king to involve Axum in the affairs of what is now Yemen. He is known primarily from inscriptions in South Arabia that mention him and his son BYGT (also vocalized as "Beyga" or "Beygat"). GDRT is thought to be the same person as GDR, the name inscribed on a bronze wand or sceptre that was found in an area near Atsbi and Dar'a near Addi Galamo in northern Ethiopia.[1] GDRT has been equated with the anonymous king of the Monumentum Adulitanum, which would date his reign c. 200 – c. 230; however, the two are usually thought to be distinct.[2] Aksumite inscription The inscriptions of GDR represent the oldest surviving royal inscriptions in the Ge'ez alphabet.[3] The oldest of these was found at Addi Galamo in the regions of Atsbi and Dar'a in eastern Tigray Region in northern Ethiopia. The area is rich in pre-Aksumite artifacts,[4] and inscriptions of a pre-Aksumite kingdom called Dʿmt have been found in the region. The inscription mentioning GDR is the only evidence of his existence from the Ethiopian side of the Red Sea: gdr / ngśy / ʾksm / tbʿl / mzlt / lʾrg / wllmq[3]
The Addi Galamo inscription was written on a sceptre or "boomerang-like object";[5] the linguist A.J. Drewes therefore interprets mzlt as meaning a sceptre or royal emblem. The inscription's meaning is uncertain, but if mzlt is taken to mean a sceptre, and ʾrg and lmq are taken to be place names (or sanctuaries), then, according to Alexander Sima, the text could mean "GDR, king of Aksum gave (this) sceptre into the possession of (the sanctuaries) ʾRG and LMQ."[5] The South Arabian expert W.F. Albert Jamme, however, translates the inscription as "GDR king of Aksum occupied the passages of `RG and LMQ", or "Gedara, King of Axum is humbled before the [gods] Arg and Almouqah," (i.e. Almaqah or Ilmuqah), assuming that the ʾ in Ilmuqah was assimilated.[6] South Arabian involvement  The Horn of Africa and South Arabia at the end of GDRT's reign, after the loss of Zafar. GDRT is first mentioned in South Arabian inscriptions as an ally of `Alhan Nahfan, king of Saba, in an inscription at Mahram Bilqis, at Ma'rib in Yemen, the temple of the moon god Ilmuqah.[7] According to Stuart Munro-Hay, the inscription reads they agreed together that their war and their peace should be in unison, against anyone that might rise up against them, and that in safety and in security there should be allied together Salhen and Zararan and `Alhan and Gadarat.[8]
Alexander Sima translates the text slightly differently, specifying that it was GDRT who "sent a diplomatic mission to [`Ahlan] in order to form an alliance."[5] Both interpret "Zararan" or "Zrrn" as the name of the palace in Aksum at the time, parallel to "Sahlen," the palace of Saba in Marib.[5][8] This Sahlen-Saba parallel, along with the Dhu-Raydan-Himyar parallel, was often used by Aksumite kings in their inscriptions enumerating the territories under their control. A Himyarite inscription confirms the Sabaean text, mentioning that Aksum, Saba', Hadramaut, and Qataban were all allied against Himyar.[5] `Alhan Nafhan's son Sha`ir Awtar or Sha`irum Awtar later abandoned the alliance with GDRT after he became king of Saba.[8] However, during the first part of Sha`ir Awtar's reign, the two powers seem to have joined in an alliance once again, this time against Hadramaut.[5] Saba's invasion of Hadramaut with Aksumite help culminated in the latter's defeat and the occupation of its capital, Shabwa, in 225. Sha`ir Awtar's attack represented a major shift in policy as, before the attack, the king of Hadhramaut, Il`azz Yalut, was married to his sister; he had even helped suppress a revolt against Il`azz Yalut.[8] Although Saba' was previously allied with Aksum against Himyar, both Himyarite and Sabaean troops were used in the attack against Hadramaut. Immediately following the conquest of Hadramaut, Sha`ir Awtar allied with Himyar against his former ally GDRT.[8] A second Sabaean inscription from the sanctuary 'Awam in Marib during the reign of Sha`ir Awtar's successor, Luha`atht Yarhum, describes events in the latter part of his predecessor's reign. The inscription tells of a diplomatic mission sent by Sha`ir Awtar to GDRT, the results of which are unknown; however, the text later goes on to describe a war between Saba and Aksum in the southern highlands of Yemen, implying that the negotiations were futile.[5] Aksum lost a battle as a result of the Saba'-Himyar alliance, allowing the South Arabian forces to expel GDRT's son BYGT and his forces from the Himyarite capital Zafar, which had previously been held by Aksum after the Aksum-Hadramaut-Qataban-Saba alliance.[8] Despite this loss, Aksum still held territory in South Arabia, as evidenced by inscriptions of Luha`atht Yarhum (r. ca. 230), which detail at least one known clash with hbšt troops in Yemen after GDRT's reign.[8] Peace may have been established after GDRT's death, but war and Aksumite involvement was renewed under his successors such as `DBH and GRMT, and the whole third century was to be dominated by Ethio-Yemeni conflicts.[8][5] Legacy GDRT was most likely the first Aksumite king to be involved in South Arabian affairs, as well as the first known king to be mentioned in South Arabian inscriptions.[5] His reign resulted in the control of much of western Yemen, such as the Tihama, Najran, Ma`afir, Zafar (until c. 230), and parts of Hashid territory around Hamir in the northern highlands.[5] Furthermore, GDRT's military alliances and his conquests in Yemen and Saudi Arabia, the required formidable fleet for such feats, and the extension of Aksumite influence throughout Yemen and southern Saudi Arabia all reflect a new zenith in Aksumite power.[8] His involvement would mark the beginning of centuries of Aksumite involvement in South Arabia, culminating with the full-scale invasion of Yemen by King Kaleb in 520 (or 525), resulting in the establishment of an Aksumite province covering all of South Arabia. GDRT's name may be preserved in Ethiopian tradition through the traditional king lists, as what seem to be variants of his name crop up in three of them. Gədur is listed as the third king in list C, Zegduru (ze meaning 'of' in Ge'ez) appears as the sixth in list E, and Zegdur appears as the third in list B, after the legendary Menelik I. Zegdur also is mentioned in at least one hagiography and short chronicle.[5] The king lists were composed centuries after the fall of the Aksumite kingdom, however, and generally do not agree with archaeological records except when concerning famous kings.[9] Zoskales (c.100) was a king in the Horn of Africa, whose realm is thought to include Axum. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions him as ruler of the port of Adulis, whose territory extended "from the Moschophagoi ['calf-eaters'] to the rest of Barbaria ... a stickler about his possessions and always holding out for getting more, but in other respects a fine person and well versed in reading and writing Greek”.[1] Some scholars have identified him with Za Haqala, who is included in the King Lists of Ethiopia. G.W.B. Huntingford points out, on the other hand, that there is not enough information to be certain of this identification, and argues instead that Zoskales was a petty king whose power was limited to only Adulis.[2] The "Silk Road" essentially came into being from the 1st century BCE, following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan, Parthians and Bactrians further west. An Egyptiancolony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty The economically important northern Silk Road and southern Spice (Eastern) trade routes. The sea routes around the horn of Arabia and the Indian sub-continent were Axum's specialty for nearly a millennium. The Kingdom of Aksum benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked the Roman Empire and India. This change took place around the start of the Common Era. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports Starting around 100 BC a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea directly to southern India. By about 100 AD the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea from Roman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India. The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. A millennium (pl. millennia) is a period of time equal to one thousand years (from Latin mille, thousand, and annum, year). The term may implicitly refer to calendar millennia; periods tied numerically to a particular dating system, specifically ones that begin at the starting (initial reference) point of the calendar in question (typically the year 1) or in later years which are whole number multiples of a thousand years after it. Dil Na'od From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Dil Na'od was the last negus of Axum before the Zagwe dynasty of Ethiopia. He lived in either the 9th or 10th centuries. Dil Na'od was the younger son of Ged'a Jan (or Degna Djan), and succeeded his older brother 'Anbasa Wedem as negus.[1] According to Wallis Budge, "The reign of Delna'ad was short, perhaps about ten years."[2] Dil Na'od is recorded as both campaigning in the Ethiopian highlands south of Axum, and sending missionaries into that region. With AbunaSalama I, he helped to build the church of Debre Igziabher overlooking Lake Hayq.[3] He was defeated by Mara Takla Haymanot, a prince from Lasta province, who married Dil Na'od's daughter, Masaba Warq. According to tradition, a son of Dil Na'od was carried to Amhara, (possibly to present day Ambassel, near Lake Hayq) where he was harbored, until his descendants overthrew the Zagwe, and reëstablished the Solomonic dynasty. Saint Gebre Mesqel Lalibela From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Gebre Mesqel Lalibela (also called simply "Lalibela", which means "the bees recognise his sovereignty" in Old Agaw) was negus or king of Ethiopia, and a member of the Zagwe dynasty; he is also considered a saint by the Ethiopian church. According to Taddesse Tamrat, he was the son of Jan Seyum and brother of Kedus Harbe. Tradition states that he reigned for 40 years.[1] According to Getachew Makonnen Hasen, his reign was from 1189 to 1229.[2] He is best known as the king who either built or commissioned the monolithic churches of Lalibela. King Lalibela was born at either Adefa or Roha (it was later named Lalibela after him) in Bugna. He was given the name "Lalibela" due to a swarm of bees said to have surrounded him at his birth, which his mother took as a sign of his future reign as Emperor of Ethiopia. Tradition states that he went into exile due to the hostility of his uncle Tatadim and his brother king Kedus Harbe, and was almost poisoned to death by his half-sister. Because Lalibela came to power during his brother's lifetime, Taddesse Tamrat suspects that he came to power by force of arms.[3] Lalibela is said to have seen Jerusalem in a vision and then attempted to build a new Jerusalem as his capital in response to the capture of old Jerusalem by Muslims in 1187. As such, many features of the town of Lalibela have Biblical names - even the town's river is known as the River Jordan. It remained the capital of Ethiopia from the late 12th century and into the 13th century. Yetbarak From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Yetbarak was nəgusä nägäst of Ethiopia, and a member of the Zagwe dynasty. According to Taddesse Tamrat, he was the son of Gebre Mesqel Lalibela.[1] Tradition states that he was made king after his father king Lalibela had taken the crown away from his first choice for his successor, Yetbarak's cousin Na'akueto La'ab. Taddesse Tamrat argues that this tradition is based on an official version of events, and theorizes that Na'akueto La'ab had fought with Yetbarak for the throne, and despite initial success Yetbarak became king in the end.[2] Taddesse Tamrat also suggests that Yetbarak was the same individual known in the "official hagiographical tradition" as Za-Ilmaknun, the king of the Zagwe dynasty whom Yekuno Amlak killed and succeeded. He notes that "Za-Ilmaknun" is translated as "The Unknown, the hidden one", an "esoteric term" that has "become a useful escape mechanism in denying that the king killed by Yikunno-`Amlak had anything to do with Lasta."[3] Yekuno Amlak of Ethiopia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Emperor Yekuno Amlak (throne name Tasfa Iyasus) was nəgusä nägäst (10 August1270 - 19 June1285)[1] of Ethiopia and restorer of the Solomonic dynasty. He traced his ancestry through his father, Tasfa Iyasus, to Dil Na'od, the last king of Axum. Much of what is known about Yekuno Amlak is based on oral traditions and medieval hagiographies. Most sources state that his mother was the slave of an Amhara chieftain in Sagarat (located in the modern Dessie Zuria district of the Amhara Region).[citation needed] Yekuno Amlak was educated at Lake Hayq's Istifanos Monastery near Amba Sel, where later medieval hagiographies state Saint Tekle Haymanot raised and educated him, and helped him to depose the last Zagwe king. Earlier hagiographies, however, state that it was Iyasus Mo'a, the abbot of Istifanos Monastery in Lake Hayq, who helped him achieve power (Istifanos was the premier monastery at that time, while Tekle Haymanot's Debre Libanos become more prominent in the later medieval period; it is from this period the traditions that ascribe the deed to Tekle Haymanot date), although neither of these traditions is contemporary[2] Yagbe'u Seyon of Ethiopia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Emperor Yagbe'u Seyon, also Yagbea-Sion (throne name Salomon) was nəgusä nägäst (18 June1285 - 1294) of Ethiopia, and a member of the Solomonic dynasty. He succeeded his father Yekuno Amlak. Yagbe'u Seyon served as co-ruler with his father Yekuno Amlak for the last few years of his reign, which eased Salomon's succession. He sought to improve the relations of his kingdom with his Muslim neighbors; however, like his father, he was unsuccessful in convincing the powers in Egypt to ordain an abuna or metropolitan for the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. At the same time, he pursued a military campaign against the Sultanate of Ifat on his southern border.  King Yagbea-Sion (left), battling the Sultan of Adal. "Le livre des Merveilles", 15th century. Marco Polo mentions that one of the "princes" of Ethiopia in 1288 planned to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, following the practice of a number of his subjects; he was dissuaded from this project, but sent his "bishop" in his place. On his return leg, this bishop was detained by the "Sultan of Aden", who attempted to convert the ecclesiastic to Islam; failing to do so, the sultan then had the bishop circumcised before releasing him. The "prince" then marched upon Aden, and despite support from two other Muslim allies the sultan was defeated and his capital captured.[1] A number of historians, including Trimingham[2] and Pankhurst[3], identify the ruler with Yagbe'u Seyon, correct Polo's reference to Adal not the Arabian seaport, and name Zeila as the sultan's capital. Historians are divided over the situation that his successors faced following Yagbe'u Seyon's death. Paul B. Henze states that Yagbe'u Seyon could not decide which of his sons should inherit his kingdom, and instructed that each would rule in turn for a year.[4] Taddesse Tamrat, on the other hand, records that his reign was followed by dynastic confusion, during which each of his sons held the throne.[5 Sons of Yagbe'u Seyon of Ethiopia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Senfa Ared IV was nəgusä nägäst (1294 - 1295) of Ethiopia. Hezba Asgad was nəgusä nägäst (1295 - 1296) of Ethiopia. Qedma Asgad was nəgusä nägäst (1296 - 1297) of Ethiopia. Jin Asgad was nəgusä nägäst (1297 - 1298) of Ethiopia. Saba Asgad was nəgusä nägäst (1298 - 1299) of Ethiopia. These sons of Emperor Yagbe'u Seyon each ruled Ethiopia for a year. Historians disagree over the situation that his successors experienced. Paul B. Henze states that Yagbe'u Seyon could not decide which of his sons should inherit his kingdom, and instructed that each would rule in turn for a year.1 Tadesse Tamrat, on the other hand, records that his reign was followed by dynastic confusion, during which each of his sons held the throne.2 E.A. Wallis Budge adds the tradition that Jin Asgad initiated the use of Amba Geshen as a royal prison for troublesome relatives of the Emperor, when he was forced to imprison his treacherous brother Saba Asgad; at the same time he imprisoned his other three brothers and his own sons in Amba Geshen.3 Whatever the situation truly was, it came to an end when Wedem Arad seized the throne. Wedem Arad From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Wedem Arad (died 1314) was nəgusä nägäst (1299 – 1314) of Ethiopia, and a member of the Solomonic dynasty. He was the brother of Yagbe'u Seyon, and seized power from his nephews. Only one military action is recorded for this ruler. In the first year of his reign, one Sheikh Abu-Abdallah had gathered a large following, and proclaimed a jihad against Wedem Arad's realm. Wedem Arad sent a number of agents into Abu-Abdallah's camp, who were able to persuade most of his followers to defect; without sufficient manpower, Abu-Abdallah was forced to agree to a treaty with Wedem Arad, in return for providing "them with all their needs until they are completely satisfied". Taddesse Tamrat suggests this involved giving them land to settle on, and notes that on the edge of the territory of Shewa there is a locality known as "Abdalla", which might be that settlement.[1] In 1306, Wedem Arad sent an embassy of 30 envoys to Europe seeking the "king of the Spains" (probably Castile and Aragon). Perhaps hearing of the Christians' successes against Al-Andalus in Iberia, Wedem Arad sought to negotiate a mutual defense pact with them against their common Muslim enemies. Whether or not the envoys reached their destination is unknown, but they did visit Rome and got as far as Avignon. Delayed on their way home, they spent some time in Genoa, where they were interviewed by the geographer Giovanni da Carignano. Giovanni's account of their country based on the interviews is lost, but was summarized by Jacobus Philippus Foresti da Bergamo in his Supplementum Chronicarum; this is the first text that Peace be upon you |