Is amerikkkan imperialism REALLY all that bad?

[Akyeame Kwame]

America and Imperialism: The Growth of Imperial Ideas



Historian Paul Kennedy has called the emergence of the U.S. as player on world stage the most decisive change in late 19th century. America saw herself with a "special moral endowment" and felt justified in projecting influence beyond her borders. Americans still avoid "entangling alliances" but feel free to get more actively involved

* 1861-65: America preoccupied with the Civil War. Spain refuses to recognize Monroe Doctrine, attempts to retake the Dominican Republic. U.S. unable to assist revolution, but Spain withdraws in 1865.
* U.S. also notices frequent fighting in Mexico, but stays out. European powers involved because of debts owed by Mexico. Spain and Great Britain eventually withdraw, but France (Napoleon III) stays on.
* 1866-67 Napoleon III and Mexico. Archduke Maximilian of Austria named Emperor of Mexico. General Philip Sheridan and 50,000 troops sent to border. 12 February 1866: Ultimatum; Napoleon pulls out in 1867; Maximilian shot by firing squad, seen as victory for Monroe Doctrine.
* 1867 William Seward purchases Alaska for $7.2 million. Anti-expansionism loose; venture called Seward's Ice Box. Seward also negotiates treaty to buy the Virgin Islands from Denmark for $7.6 million, but the Senate says no. The U.S. occupies Midway Island.
* 1870 President Grant wants to annex the Dominican Republic, sends agent to negotiate agreement. Secretary of State Fish is not enthusiastic abut idea. The Cabinet disapproves, but Grant is undeterred. Senate rejects formal treaty despite Grant's lobbying. Grant angry over rejection.
* 1871 Alabama Claims. During Civil War British built Confederate raiders destroyed 100,000 tons of U.S. shipping. Johnson-Clarendon Convention negotiated by Seward to adjudicate claims (1869) is rejected by the Senate 53-1. Grant's Secretary of State Fish reopens issue. Treaty of Washington of 8 May agrees to submit claims to international tribunal (Italy, Switzerland, Brazil, G.B., U.S.) which awards U.S. $15.5 million. British had failed "due diligence" test. Outstanding achievement of the Grant administration.
* 1873 The Virginius Affair. An insurrection known as the Ten Years War broke out in Cuba in 1868. Cuban independence was declared and a provisional government established, but its status was uncertain when Grant took office. A U.S. mediation plan died, and Secretary of State Fish worked to avoid U.S. intervention. In 1873 more trouble erupted from U.S. filibustering in Cuba to aid rebels. The Virginius, a gun runner for Cuban rebels, was captured by the Spanish, who executed the crew, including some Americans. Just before being hanged ship's Captain Fry sent a pathetic letter to his wife, which was published in a NYC newspaper. War fever flared, coastal cities armed and prepared, but war was averted as Fish moderated U.S. demands. Cuba later paid an indemnity of $80k for the families of executed Americans. Bloodshed continued in Cuba until 1878, when Spain enforced peace, but the incident is a hint of future U.S. trouble with Spain over Cuba.
* 1881 Secretary of State James G. Blaine wants to strengthen U.S. exports, increase U.S. prestige and influence in Latin America at the expense of Europe. He invites nations to conference in Washington, leaves office when Arthur becomes President, conference never comes off.
* 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act restricts Chinese immigration for 10 years following much anti-Chinese agitation in the U.S. In 1885 a massacre of Chinese in Wyoming was followed by anti-Chinese agitation in Washington Territory. Many Chinese returned home, spread stories about treatment by Americans. Additional treaties extend exclusion, and anti-American feelings persist into 1900s.
* 1888 "Mr. Blaine's Congress"-attempt at Latin-American-U.S. cooperation derided, but seeds were planted which later lead to the Pan American Union & Organization of American States. Blaine also tries to modify the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty-invokes Monroe Doctrine when European nations show interest in building Panama canal, talk with Colombia.
* 1888 Several nations, including the U.S., are interested in Samoa-which lies along route to Australia. In 1878 a new Samoan Treaty of Amity and Commerce was made which gave the U.S. rights to Pago-Pago harbor. In 1884 Germans tried to force a new treaty on the Samoans; tension arose among U.S.-G.B.-Germany. Fighting breaks out 1888; in 1889 trouble between Germany, Great Britain, U.S. avoided when typhoon destroys ships. Tripartite protectorate established. 1899 partitioning: German, British, American Samoa. U.S. formally becomes owner 1929.
* 1891 Trouble with Italy over Mafia activity in New Orleans. 11 Italians (3 Italian citizens) lynched. U.S. says the issue is a matter of state law; Italy angry. Nothing comes of it.
* 1891-92. Chilean Dispute. Arms runners supplying Chilean civil war captured by American ship. Resentment in Chile breaks out when U.S.S. Baltimore visits Chile. Two U.S. sailors killed, 17 wounded. Harrison mentions war, prepares message. Chile slow to react, claims it's a drunken brawl among sailors. Eventually resolved with $75,000 indemnity.
* 1895 The Venezuelan Boundary dispute: The Monroe Doctrine revisited. A dispute erupts over the British Guiana-Venezuela boundary. The U.S. offers mediation, British reject idea, which stirs Anglophobia in the U.S. Secretary of State Olney declares: "The U.S. is practically sovereign" in the western hemisphere. G.B. answers that the Monroe Doctrine has no force in law. Cleveland lays correspondence before Congress. G.B., concerned over rivalry with Germany, S.A. (Boer War), finally decides in its own best interest to give in. ("War would be an absurdity"-Chamberlain.) An example of "Jingoism."
* 1895 Approach of the Spanish-American War. In 1895 fighting flares up in Cuba; Spain sends 50,000 troops; Spanish gunboat fires on U.S. steamer, causes hubbub in U.S. Developments in Cuba affect U.S. economy, especially after Panic of 1893. Americans are predisposed to aid Cuban rebels in fight for independence. Revolutionists carry out propaganda campaign, destruction of sugar mills in order to induce American intervention. Revolutionary junta in NYC spreads propaganda; American citizens interfering in Cuba.
* 1896 General Valeriano Weyler arrives in Cuba, establishes concentration camps. Republicans adopt imperialist platform, McKinley elected. Election distracts, but concentration camps renew interest, result in demonstrations. Congress calls for recognition of Cubans' belligerent rights; McKinley offers to mediate with Spain for Cuban independence. Spain declines but otherwise tries to meet U.S. demands. McKinley plays for time. American ambassadors working in opposite directions: Woodford in Madrid (peace), Lee in Havana (war.)
* Yellow Journalism makes itself felt in Cuban conflict. Newspapers practice sensationalism, exaggeration. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer vie for readers in circulation war. Consider war as their personal property; one editor goes "raving crazy." Hearst to photographer: "You take care of the pictures, I'll take care of the war." Historian Page Smith calls press behavior "disgraceful."
* 1897 Spain wants to avoid war, recalls Weyler, reforms policies. When U.S. protests treatment of American citizens (former Cubans) Spain offers remedies. Spanish loyalists and rebels both unhappy at good relations between Spain, U.S. Navalists (Roosevelt, Lodge) urge firmness.
* 1898 Spanish loyalists shout "Viva Weyler!" Lee requests warships to Key West, Maine sent to Havana-provocative act. While Maine at anchor in Havana a letter insulting to President McKinley written by Spanish minister De Lome is stolen from U.S. mails by an insurrectionist spy and turned over to a Hearst reporter, published in Journal. Outrages Americans. De Lome resigns. One week later, February 15, the Maine, which had been dispatched as a "friendly act of courtesy" to "protect American lives and property" blew up. Not known for sure who or what caused it; Spanish least likely. Yellow Press: "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!"
* 1898 The U.S. declares war on Spain. [Read McKinley's message] The Teller Amendment is added declaring America's intention not to annex Cuba.

The Spanish-American War was a brief conflict won handily by the united States over an inept Spanish army and navy. Thanks to the encouragement of expansionists and the reckless behavior of the yellow press, Americans enthusiastically supported the war. Many young men volunteered, but the regular U.S. Army, which had done little but fight Indians since the Civil war, was ill prepared to manage the fighting.

The Navy, on the other hand, was in good trim, having been built up beginning with the Harrison administration in response to the writings of Mahan and the support of other "navalists" like Theodore Roosevelt. The Navy foguht well from the beginning when Commodore Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was continued when Admirals Sampson and Schley defeated another Spanish fleet off the coast of Cuba. Although plagues by inefficiency, disease and disorder, the Army, bolstered by volunteers such as the famous "Rough Riders," fought bravely enough to defeat a hapless Spanish army near Santiago. American tropps also occupied Puerto Rico. The Treaty of Paris that ended the war granted independence to Cuba; Spain turned over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands to the United States, for which the U.S. paid $20 million to Spain.

The "Splendid Little War" lasted only four months, the fighting itself only weeks. African American soldiers, many of them veterans of the Indian wars with the 9th and 10th cavalry, played a vital role for the Americans and contributed to the victory. The presence of Black troops in camps and departure areas in the Southern states caused several incidents in which the troops reacted against discriminatory policies.

Thanks to Dewey's victory in Manila, American military forces occupied the Philippine Islands. Philippine revolutionary Emilio Aguinaldo refused to exchange Spanish occupation for American and continued his insurrection against the new American "invaders." The result was one of the ugliest wars in American history, and the war and the annexation of the Philippines created a large controversy over America's role as an imperial power. Imperialists argued that the U.S. had a duty to help civilize and control the underdeveloped parts of the world, but Anti-Imperialist League was founded that opposed America's acquisition of colonies as anti-democratic and destructive of American ideals. The result of the debate and the ugly Philippine insurrection was that the U.S. promised eventual independence to the Philippines and also eventually allowed Puerto Rico to determine its own destiny, which is still being decided.

Hawaii: A Classic Case of Economic Imperialism

American interest in the Hawaiian Islands goes back to post-revolutionary days when American trader first started traversing the Pacific. Hawaii was a convenient stopping-off place for ship bound for China and Japan. American missionaries arrived in the islands in the early 19th century, and the scenery, climate and valuable crops like sugar and fruits attracted attention. Although American did not make any move to annex or otherwise control Hawaii, American policy consistently sought to keep others from extending their influence over the islands.

* 1842 Secretary of State Daniel Webster recognizes the importance of Hawaii for the United States. Native Hawaiians want to resist foreign intervention and see the U.S as an ally in that effort. The U.S. makes no attempt to annex Hawaii, but rejects foreign influence.
* 1843 A British naval officer attempts annexation of Hawaii but his efforts are disavowed.
* 1848 After territory is added from the Mexican War, including California, Hawaii becomes even more important.
* 1849 The U.S. formally recognizes Hawaiian independence, talk of annexation starts but comes to nothing.
* 1875 The U.S. signs a reciprocity trade treaty with Hawaii which admits Hawaiian sugar to the U.S. duty free. Under the terms of the treaty no Hawaiian territory is to be disposed of to a third party.
* 1884 Reciprocity Treaty renewed.
* 1887 Rights to naval base at Pearl Harbor added to the agreement between the U.S. and Hawaii. Later that year a revolution of white (mostly American) planters forces Hawaiian King Kalakua to create a constitutional government which becomes dominated by minority white Americans. By 1890 the Americans control 2/3 of the land in Hawaii.
* 1890 The McKinley Tariff ends the favorable sugar trade situation for Hawaii, resulting in large losses for American planters. Americans also lose power when Queen Liliuokalani, a strong Hawaiian nationalist, accedes to the throne in 1891. An educated woman, (She wrote "Aloha Oe") she claims that "Hawaii is for the Hawaiians!" and opposes political reforms.
* 1893 A white citizens' revolt is led by Sanford Dole, who forms a "Committee of Safety" to overthrow the native government. U.S. diplomat Stevens violates law by improperly ordering U.S. Marines ashore from a warship, threatening the government. Dole becomes president of a new provisional government.
* An annexation treaty is hastily sent to Washington and then submitted to the Senate by President Harrison, but is blocked by Democrats in the Senate. When Cleveland takes office he orders an investigation and withdraws the treaty pending answers. A former congressman discovers wrongdoing against Queen Liliuokalani, and Cleveland tries to restore her throne. The provisional government refuses to step down and Cleveland is unwilling to use force in the matter. The U.S. Marines are withdrawn, Cleveland refuses to resubmit the treaty and attention turns toward Cuba.
* 1894 On July 4 the Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed and is recognized by the U.S.
* 1898 Spanish-American War shines new light on Hawaii because of activity in the Pacific-Hawaii a link to the Far East. McKinley negotiates a new annexation treaty, but it is held up by anti-imperialists in the Senate. The U.S. annexes Hawaii by a joint resolution of Congress, approved by McKinley July 7, accepted by Congress in August. Hawaii becomes U.S. territory June 14, 1900.


The Open Door

In 1900 Secretary of State John Hay announced what became known as the "Open Door" policy with regard to China. His intention was that no European nation was to create a sphere of influence in China to the exclusion of other nations. America is once again willing to look outward and intervene overseas to further her own economic and political interests.

Puerto Rico

The U.S. occupies Puerto Rico with a force under General Miles in 1898. The Foraker Act of 1900 attaches Puerto Rico as unincorporated territory with an elective legislature, governor and council appointed by the President. In 1909 a split develops between an independence movement and supporters of U.S. statehood. The 1917 Jones Act creates of Puerto Rico an "organized but unincorporated territory." Puerto Ricans have U.S. citizenship. Modifications to laws give Puerto Ricans the right to elect their own governor in 1947. Puerto Rico is now "free" but must obey the U.S. Constitution. In 1952 the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is established: statehood and independence options are still available and under debate at the present time.

Guam has a naval officer as governor until World War II. In 1950 Guam is organized as a territory and has one delegate to Congress.

Cuba is occupied by the United States following the war. Reforms are initiated in Public Administration and Public Health reforms initiated. Health agencies are directed by General Leonard Wood. Doctors Walter Reed and William Gorgas exterminate yellow fever in Cuba and push education and other reforms. A constitutional convention is called in 1900 to set up Cuban government, and Americans withdraw in 1902. As part of the legislation at the end of the war the Platt Amendment was added which placed certain restrictions on Cuba:

* Cuba can make no treaties without U.S. agreement
* Cuba can not create indebtedness beyond means to pay.
* The U.S. may intervene in Cuba to maintain law and order.
* The U.S. will run a sanitation program.
* The U.S. granted rights to a naval base at Guantanamo Bay until 1999

The Panama Canal. The Spanish-American War showed the need for an isthmian canal. Various issues arise:

* The 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty has to be set aside
* Where will the canal be built? Panama or Nicaragua? French De Lesseps company still has rights in Panama, wants to salvage something; drops price from $109 million to $40 million when it sees that the U.S. House prefers the Nicaraguan route.
* Panama is part of Colombia. The Hay-Herran Treaty offers Colombia $10 million, $250,000 rent, 99-year lease, etc. Colombia holds out for $25 million, Colombian Senate rejects treaty unanimously.
* President Roosevelt tacitly supports revolution in Panama with American warships.
* Panama declares independence on November 4th, 1903. U.S. recognizes on 6th. Hay-Buneau-Varilla Treaty signed November 18th. U.S. guarantees Panamanian independence.
* In 1904 the Hay-Buneau-Varilla Treaty is ratified February 23. U.S. buys De Lesseps Company rights for $40 million. Ten-mile-wide zone guaranteed in perpetuity. The deal costs Colombia $40 million; $25 million guilt money eventually paid in 1921. Much resentment among Latin American nations over TR's "big stick" diplomacy. At home people call it "disgraceful" or "piracy." In cabinet meeting Elihu Root says to TR, "You were accused of seduction but proved you were guilty of rape."
* TR later says: "I took the Canal Zone, started the canal and let Congress debate me." Ends justified means. Wanted "to make the dirt fly" before 1904 election.
* Canal completed in 1914 at cost of $400 million-one of the world's engineering wonders.

History 122 Part 2

[Akyeame Kwame]

American Empire



For other uses, see (Click link for more info and facts about American Empire (disambiguation)) American Empire (disambiguation)


The American Empire is a politically-charged, informal term used to describe the current political, economic and cultural influence of the (North American republic containing 50 states - 48 conterminous states in North America plus Alaska in northwest North America and the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean; achieved independence in 1776) United States on a global scale. It is generally, though by no means always, used with a negative connotation. Proponents of the term claim that it is an appropriate one, based on (Click link for more info and facts about American history) American history and an evident American (The doctrine of expanding the territory or the economic influence of a country) expansionism ideology, as conveyed in the cultural ethos of " (A policy of imperialism rationalized as inevitable (as if granted by God)) Manifest Destiny" —often called " (Click link for more info and facts about American exceptionalism) American exceptionalism."

Expansion
As one of the motivations underlying the (The revolution of the American colonies against Great Britain; 1775-1783) American Revolution and secession from (An island comprising England and Scotland and Wales) Great Britain was the constraint imposed by the British government on westward territorial expansion beyond the (A mountain range in the eastern United States extending from Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico; a historic barrier to early westward expansion of the United States) Appalachian Mountains, an expansionist tendency was thus present in the United States at the beginning of the nation. At first, the focus was on expansion within North America and internal agricultural and industrial development. Some 130 years after independence, however, the (Click link for more info and facts about Spanish American War) Spanish American War (which was partially provoked by American politicians and businessmen, like (United States newspaper publisher whose introduction of large headlines and sensational reporting changed American journalism (1863-1951)) William Randolph Hearst, interested in overt European-style imperialism) initiated the period of overt empire-building involving the annexation of territory formerly held by foreign governments. After the war, the defeated (A parliamentary monarchy in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula; a former colonial power) Kingdom of Spain ceded most of its colonial possessions (including, for example, the (Click link for more info and facts about Philipines) Philipines and (A self-governing commonwealth associated with the United States occupying the island of Puerto Rico) Puerto Rico) to the control of the United States.

The following areas have at one time or another been part of a sort of "American Empire," that is to say (Click link for more info and facts about colonies) colonies that were annexed to the United States, yet not granted statehood or self-rule during the period of U.S. rule:

(A United States territory on the eastern part of the island of Samoa) American Samoa (1900-)
(A communist state in the Caribbean on the island of Cuba; involved in state-sponsored terrorism) Cuba (1899-1909)
(now independent; however, (Click link for more info and facts about Guantanamo Bay) Guantanamo Bay remains under the control of the U.S. military)
(A republic in the West Indies; located on the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola) Dominican Republic (1916-1922) (now independent)
(The largest and southernmost island in the Marianas which is administered as a territory of the United States; it was ceded by Spain to the United States in 1898) Guam (1898- )
(A state in the United States in the central Pacific on the Hawaiian Islands) Hawai'i (1898- ) (now a U.S. state)
(A republic in West Africa; established in 1822 by Americans as a way to free negro slaves) Liberia (1823-1968)
(roughly under (Click link for more info and facts about ACS) ACS control, between the era of the (An American foreign policy opposing interference in the Western hemisphere from outside powers) Monroe Doctrine and the (Click link for more info and facts about Civil Rights Act of 1968) Civil Rights Act of 1968)
(Click link for more info and facts about Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1944-1990)
(now comprising the independent states of the (A group of coral islands in eastern Micronesia) Marshall Islands, the (A country scattered over Micronesia with a constitutional government in free association with the United States; achieved independence in 1986) Federated States of Micronesia, and (A chain of more than 200 islands about 400 miles long in the western central Pacific Ocean) Palau; as well as one commonwealth—the (A self-governing territory comprising all of the Mariana Islands except Guam) Northern Mariana Islands)
(A zone consisting of a strip of land across the Isthmus of Panama that contains the Panama Canal) Panama Canal Zone (1903-1979) (now part of (A republic on the Isthmus of Panama; achieved independence from Colombia in 1903) Panama)
(A republic on the Philippine Islands; achieved independence from the United States in 1946) Philippines (1898-1946) (now independent)
(A self-governing commonwealth associated with the United States occupying the island of Puerto Rico) Puerto Rico (1898-1952) (now a commonwealth)
(Click link for more info and facts about U.S. Virgin Islands) U.S. Virgin Islands (1917-)

Many of America's former colonies have since become independent countries, states of the American union, or self-governing (A world organization of autonomous states that are united in allegiance to a central power but are not subordinate to it or to one another) commonwealths. However, despite the fact that these countries are legally independent, the US has often intervened military or otherwise influenced their domestic affairs. Examples of military intervention are the US invasion of the (A republic in the West Indies; located on the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola) Dominican Republic in 1965 or the (Click link for more info and facts about invasion of Panama) invasion of Panama in 1989. An example of non-military intervention in former U.S. colonies are the assassination attempts on (Cuban socialist leader who overthrew a dictator in 1959 and established a Marxist socialist state in Cuba (born in 1927)) Fidel Castro and the (An independent agency of the United States government responsible for collecting and coordinating intelligence and counterintelligence activities abroad in the national interest; headed by the Director of Central Intelligence under the supervision of the ) CIA-supported (Click link for more info and facts about Bay of Pigs Invasion) Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961.

The US also remains the main trading partner of both the (A republic in the West Indies; located on the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola) Dominican Republic and the (A republic on the Philippine Islands; achieved independence from the United States in 1946) Philippines.

Contemporary use of the term
Today, what many consider to be the "American Empire" follows a pattern of informal influence wielded through patron client relationships with many states (e.g. Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Taiwan, South Korea). This phenomenon is not new, nor necessarily a sufficient condition of imperialism, but has always been one facet of imperialistic control. America's military presence by itself is widespread and influential. According to researchers (*), around the world, the United States maintains 750 military bases or installations staffed by American military personnel in roughly 130 countries. The economic and cultural influence of the United States is also substantial, which has engendered resentment of (Assimilation into American culture) Americanisation of many countries.

It has been suggested that America has achieved the status of world (Click link for more info and facts about hegemon) hegemon (in the sense of a (A state powerful enough to influence events throughout the world) superpower lacking opposition of comparable power or influence). Put another way, the United States's power is such that it can act unilaterally without fear of substantial reprisal because of the superiority of its military forces in any relevant theater of operations.

The term "American Empire" is today most often used as a derogatory expression to criticize America's military and cultural effects in various parts of the world.

At the same time, many (Click link for more info and facts about statesmen) statesmen, (A learned person (especially in the humanities); someone who by long study has gained mastery in one or more disciplines) scholars, and historians within the United States insist that America is an empire in the sense that the country holds tremendous power over the world, comparable to other great empires of history. Many thus argue that the United States should thus not shy away from using this power as a way of maintaining order, peace, and safety for both America and the world at large. This is ideology is exemplified by the (A conservative who subscribes to neoconservativism) neoconservative (Click link for more info and facts about Project for the New American Century) Project for the New American Century, which became influential in the 2003 decision to invade Iraq. As recited among the PNAC's statement of principles:

We need to accept responsibility for America's unique role in preserving and extending an international order friendly to our security, our prosperity, and our principles. (*)



While supporters cite such ideology as one with motivations of global peace and stability, many in opposition view it as harmful to diversity, and reject the notion of a single dominating superpower in order to maintain "balance", "equality", "mutual respect", and "harmony" among all nations around the world. Another criticism is that recent (A record or narrative description of past events) history has shown that despite US claims to the contrary US foreign policy has much more often brought war and conflict than peace.

As an example of the viewpoint commonly expressed by those accusing the United States of imperialism, (Click link for more info and facts about William Blum) William Blum wrote in his book Killing Hope - US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II that "From 1945 to 2003, the United States attempted to overthrow more than 40 foreign governments, and to crush more than 30 populist-nationalist movements fighting against intolerable regimes. In the process, the US bombed some 25 countries, caused the end of life for several million people, and condemned many millions more to a life of agony and despair."

Books
There has been much literature in recent years about the current state of what some consider to be the "American Empire."

In American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (2002), Andrew J. Bacevich argues that the end of the (A state of political conflict using means short of armed warfare) Cold War did not mark the end of an era in American history, because (he says) American foreign policy did not fundamentally change after the Cold War. Bacevich argues, like historians (Click link for more info and facts about Charles Beard) Charles Beard and (Click link for more info and facts about William Appleman Williams) William Appleman Williams before him, that American foreign policy has long been driven by the desire to expand access to foreign markets in order to benefit the domestic economy. Bacevich believes that the moralistic reasons given for American foreign intervention mask the true economic reasons, and he warns that American economic imperialism (in the guise of (Growth to a global or worldwide scale) globalization) may not be in the best interests of the United States.

In the book Empire by (Click link for more info and facts about Michael Hardt) Michael Hardt and (Click link for more info and facts about Antonio Negri) Antonio Negri, the USA is seen as central for the development and constitution of a new global regime of (Click link for more info and facts about international power) international power and (Government free from external control) sovereignty, termed empire by Hardt and Negri. The book builds on (Click link for more info and facts about neomarxist) neomarxist, (Click link for more info and facts about postcolonial) postcolonial, (Click link for more info and facts about postmodern) postmodern ideas and (Growth to a global or worldwide scale) globalization theories. Because the empire of Hardt and Negri is decentralized and global, not the rule of one sovereign state over another, it may be differentiated from the American Empire described in this article.

In his books Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (2003) and Colossus: The Price of America's Empire (2004), historian (Click link for more info and facts about Niall Ferguson) Niall Ferguson has drawn parallels between the (Formerly the United Kingdom and all the territories under its control; reached its greatest extent at the end of World War I) British Empire and the imperial role of the United States in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. However, he describes the United States political and social structures as more like those of the Roman Empire than of the British. In contrast to Hardt and Negri, Ferguson views empire as a neutral description, with both positive and negative aspects.

[Akyeame Kwame]

Pax Americana



The term Pax Americana ( (Any dialect of the language of ancient Rome) Latin: "American Peace") denotes the period of perceived peace in the (Click link for more info and facts about Western world) Western world since the end of (A war between the Allies (Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Iran, Iraq, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherl) World War II in 1945, coinciding with the dominant military and economic position of the (North American republic containing 50 states - 48 conterminous states in North America plus Alaska in northwest North America and the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean; achieved independence in 1776) United States. It places the US in the role of a modern-day (An empire established by Augustus in 27 BC and divided in AD 395 into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern or Byzantine Empire; at its peak lands in Europe and Africa and Asia were ruled by ancient Rome) Roman Empire or (Formerly the United Kingdom and all the territories under its control; reached its greatest extent at the end of World War I) British Empire (based on (The Roman peace; the long period of peace enforced on states in the Roman Empire) Pax Romana and (Click link for more info and facts about Pax Britannica) Pax Britannica, respectively). During this period, the United States and its allies have been involved in various regional wars (such as the (A war between North and South Korea; South Korea was aided by the United States and other members of the United Nations; 1950-1953) Korean War and the (A prolonged war (1954-1975) between the communist armies of North Vietnam who were supported by the Chinese and the non-communist armies of South Vietnam who were supported by the United States) Vietnam War), and have maintained (The systematic use of spies to get military or political secrets) espionage and covert operations in various other areas. However, no armed conflict has emerged among major Western nations themselves. Nor have any strategic weapons been used.

The term Pax Americana is used by critics of U.S. policy to describe an alleged effort by the U.S. to suppress countries that do not cooperate with U.S. policy. Yet, some supporters of American foreign policy also use the term, so it is not necessarily derogatory. For example, it appears repeatedly in a September 2000 document, Rebuilding America's Defenses, by the (Click link for more info and facts about Project for the New American Century) Project for the New American Century, widely regarded as a (Click link for more info and facts about neo-conservative) neo-conservative (Click link for more info and facts about think-tank) think-tank.

Origins of the peace
The Pax Americana derives partly from the direct influence of the United States, but as significantly or more so from international institutions backed by American financing and diplomacy.

Even the so-called unipolar moment following the collapse of the (A former communist country in eastern Europe and northern Asia; established in 1922; included Russia and 14 other soviet socialist republics (Ukraine and Byelorussia an others); officially dissolved 31 December 1991) Soviet Union does not compare with the advantageous position of the United States in 1945 with respect to the rest of the industrialized world. It was then responsible for half of global industrial output, held 80 percent of the world's (A soft yellow malleable ductile (trivalent and univalent) metallic element; occurs mainly as nuggets in rocks and alluvial deposits; does not react with most chemicals but is attacked by chlorine and aqua regia) gold reserves, and was the world's sole (Nuclear energy regarded as a source of electricity for the power grid (for civilian use)) nuclear power. Already the largest economy in the world, the United States ended World War II with its domestic infrastructure virtually unscathed and its military forces at unprecedented strength. The catastrophic destruction of life, infrastructure, and capital of the Second World War had exhausted the (The domain ruled by an emperor or empress) empires of the (The regions of the world that were known to Europeans before the discovery of the Americas) Old World, however, victor and vanquished alike.

The U.S. invested heavily in programs such as the (A United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe (1948-1952); named after George Marshall) Marshall Plan and in the reconstruction of Japan, economically cementing defense ties that owed increasingly to the fall of the (An impenetrable barrier to communication or information especially as imposed by rigid censorship and secrecy; used by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the demarcation between democratic and communist countries) Iron Curtain and widening of the (A state of political conflict using means short of armed warfare) Cold War. The aegis of American backing enabled not only the rapid reindustrialization of Europe and Japan, but allowed nations to experiment with new structures such as the (Click link for more info and facts about European Coal and Steel Community) European Coal and Steel Community, further enhancing international cooperation.

But in the best position to take advantage of free trade, culturally indisposed to traditional empires (though not without its own colonial interests), and alarmed by the rise of (A political theory favoring collectivism in a classless society) communism in (A communist nation that covers a vast territory in eastern Asia; the most populous country in the world) China and the detonation of the first Soviet (A nuclear weapon in which enormous energy is released by nuclear fission (splitting the nuclei of a heavy element like uranium 235 or plutonium 239)) atom bomb, the historically (An advocate of isolationism in international affairs) isolationist U.S. also took a keen interest in developing multilateral institutions which would maintain a favorable world order, among them.

(Click link for more info and facts about Bretton Woods system) Bretton Woods system of (Click link for more info and facts about international financial management) international financial management, including the (A United Nations agency created to assist developing nations by loans guaranteed by member governments) World Bank and (A United Nations agency to promote trade by increasing the exchange stability of the major currencies) International Monetary Fund, and for a time (Click link for more info and facts about pegged rate) pegged rate currency exchange and the (A paragon of excellence) gold standard with the (The basic unit of money in the United States) United States dollar serving as international (Click link for more info and facts about reserve currency) reserve currency.
(Click link for more info and facts about North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), a (A system for international peace) collective security agreement of Atlantic powers, the mutual defense treaties with (A constitutional monarchy occupying the Japanese Archipelago; a world leader in electronics and automobile manufacture and ship building) Japan and (A republic in the southern half of the Korean Peninsula; established in 1948) South Korea, and to a far lesser extent the (Click link for more info and facts about Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). With the fall of the (An impenetrable barrier to communication or information especially as imposed by rigid censorship and secrecy; used by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the demarcation between democratic and communist countries) Iron Curtain and outbreak of the (A state of political conflict using means short of armed warfare) Cold War, the U.S. maintained significant contingents of armed forces in Europe and (Click link for more info and facts about East Asia) East Asia.
(A United Nations agency created by a multinational treaty to promote trade by the reduction of tariffs and import quotas) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), a protocol for normalization and reduction of trade (A government tax on imports or exports) tariffs.
(An organization of independent states formed in 1945 to promote international peace and security) United Nations, but most particularly the veto power of permanent members of the (Click link for more info and facts about UN Security Council) UN Security Council.

Some critics maintain that these programs and organizations are in effect instruments of American power or state policy, or are mismanaged and have deleterious effects on certain nations. Others express resentment at their countries' dependence on U.S. military protection, due to disagreements with U.S. policy or the presence of U.S. forces themselves. The ability of the U.S. to act as "the world's (The force of policemen and officers) policeman" is constrained further by its own citizens' historic animadversion to foreign wars. Nevertheless, the institutions behind the Pax Americana have persisted into the early 21st century.

Pax Americana as Imperialism
The long history of U.S. (A policy of nonparticipation in international economic and political relations) isolationism subsided only after major shocks associated with the (A war between the United STates and Spain in 1898) Spanish-American War, (A war between the allies (Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, United States, Japan, Rumania, Serbia, Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Montenegro) and the central powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) from 1914 to 1918) World War I, and (A war between the Allies (Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Iran, Iraq, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherl) World War II, the (A state of political conflict using means short of armed warfare) Cold War, and various post-Cold War conflicts with non-state actors. There are those who believe that the United States has sought, or has found itself forced into, a quasi-imperialist role by its status as the world's sole (A state powerful enough to influence events throughout the world) superpower. However, the term "isolationist" in this context applies to the global stage; the United States has never been isolationist with respect to the (The hemisphere that includes North and South America) Western Hemisphere, which it has considered to fall within its (The geographical area in which one nation is very influential) sphere of influence, and has a long history of military intervention within this region of the world, in the spirit of the (A town in north central Louisiana) Monroe and (President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology) Truman Doctrines.

The fiercest debates between imperialist and isolationist factions occurred at the end of the (Click link for more info and facts about 19th century) 19th century. At that time, the " (Click link for more info and facts about jingoes) jingoes", including (26th President of the United States; hero of the Spanish-American War; Panama Canal was built during his administration; said `Speak softly but carry a big stick' (1858-1919)) Theodore Roosevelt, favored U.S. control of (A state in the United States in the central Pacific on the Hawaiian Islands) Hawaii and the (A republic on the Philippine Islands; achieved independence from the United States in 1946) Philippines. Those who favored traditional American policies of avoiding foreign entanglements included (United States labor leader (born in England) who was president of the American Federation of Labor from 1886 to 1924 (1850-1924)) Samuel Gompers and (United States industrialist and philanthropist who endowed education and public libraries and research trusts (1835-1919)) Andrew Carnegie. At that time, "imperial" was used as a positive term by jingoes and as a negative term by opponents. When (26th President of the United States; hero of the Spanish-American War; Panama Canal was built during his administration; said `Speak softly but carry a big stick' (1858-1919)) Theodore Roosevelt became president following the (Murder of a public figure by surprise attack) assassination of (25th President of the United States; was assassinated by an anarchist (1843-1901)) William McKinley in 1900, U.S. foreign policy began to undergo its first major shift away from isolationism towards a policy of foreign intervention.

[Akyeame Kwame]

The White Man's Burden



The White Man's Burden is a (Click link for more info and facts about Eurocentric) Eurocentric view of the world used to encourage powerful nations to adopt an (A piece of luggage carried on top of a coach) imperial role. The term is the name of an 1899 poem by (English author of novels and poetry who was born in India (1865-1936)) Rudyard Kipling, the sentiments of which give insight into this (A comprehensive view of the world and human life) world view.

The first stanza of the Kipling poem reads:

Take up the White Man's burden —


Send forth the best ye breed —

Go, bind your sons to exile


To serve your captives' need;

To wait, in heavy harness,


On fluttered folk and wild —

Your new-caught sullen peoples,


Half devil and half child.

In this view, non-European cultures are seen as child-like as well as (Someone extremely diligent or skillful) demonic, with people of (The 2nd smallest continent (actually a vast peninsula of Eurasia); the British use `Europe' to refer to all of the continent except the British Isles) European descent having an obligation to rule them and encourage their development until they can take their place in the world by fully adopting western ways.

The poem was originally published in the popular (A periodic paperback publication) magazine (Click link for more info and facts about McClure's) McClure's in the (North American republic containing 50 states - 48 conterminous states in North America plus Alaska in northwest North America and the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean; achieved independence in 1776) United States. It was written specifically because after the (A war between the United STates and Spain in 1898) Spanish-American War, feeling in the US was more (An advocate of isolationism in international affairs) isolationist than not. It was believed that had the U.S. not taken over (A parliamentary monarchy in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula; a former colonial power) Spain's position in the (A republic on the Philippine Islands; achieved independence from the United States in 1946) Philippines, another foreign power would have moved into the vacuum. Kipling wrote this poem specifically to help sway popular opinion in the U.S., so that a "friendly" western power would hold the (Click link for more info and facts about strategically) strategically important Philippines.

The view and the term itself are often regarded, in modern times — particularly by (Click link for more info and facts about multiculturalists) multiculturalists and (A person who favors a political philosophy of progress and reform and the protection of civil liberties) liberals — as (A person with a prejudiced belief that one race is superior to others) racist and condescending, cultivating a sense of European ascendancy of less civilized people, or of quantifying and evaluating the value of culture. (See also (Click link for more info and facts about cultural imperialism) cultural imperialism). However, some (A person who has conservative ideas or opinions) conservatives and various other right-wing groups today still have sympathy for the idea of a White Man's Burden, although most explicitly remove the idea of race from the concept. They argue that it is a responsibility of richer countries to help less developed countries. They point out that law and order are vital to the economic and cultural growth of a nation, and sometimes difficult to achieve without foreign intervention. (Click link for more info and facts about Nation building) Nation building could be seen as an example of a modern-day "White Man's Burden".

The term "liberal guilt" is sometimes used as a modern parallel to the historic "white man's burden". It is used by some modern whites to validate discrimination or double-standards towards their own ethnic group because of their own perceived responsibility or culpability for historical wrongs.

In a historical context, the concept makes clear the prevalent attitudes that allowed (Exploitation by a stronger country of weaker one; the use of the weaker country's resources to strengthen and enrich the stronger country) colonialism to proceed. Although a belief in the virtues of empire was widespread at the time there were also many dissenters and the publication of the poem caused a flurry of arguments from both sides, most notably from (United States writer and humorist best known for his novels about Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn (1835-1910)) Mark Twain and (Writer who was born in the United States but lived in England (1843-1916)) Henry James. Much of Kipling's other writing does suggest that he genuinely believed in the beneficent role which the introduction of Western ideas could play in lifting non-Western peoples out of poverty and ignorance. Lines 3-5 and other parts of the poem suggest that it is not just the native people who are enslaved, but the functionaries of empire who are caught in colonial service.

Kipling himself was not simply a worshiper of the power of empire. He wrote many poems celebrating the working classes, particularly the common soldier. Also, six months after White Man's Burden was published he wrote The Old Issue, a stinging criticism of the (Either of two wars: the first when the Boers fought England in order to regain the independence they had given up to obtain British help against the Zulus (1880-1881); the second when the Orange Free State and Transvaal declared war on Britain (1899-1902)) Boer War and attack on the unlimited and despotic power of kings although the Boer War itself was a fight between a colonial power and a group of colonists.

The final stanza of the poem seems to refer to events in the poet's own life:

Take up the White Man's burden —


Have done with childish days —

The lightly proffered laurel,


The easy, ungrudged praise.

Comes now, to search your manhood


Through all the thankless years,

Cold-edged with dear-bought wisdom,


The judgment of your peers!

In 1892 the long-standing (The poet officially appointed to the royal household in Great Britain) poet laureate (Englishman and Victorian poet (1809-1892)) Alfred Lord Tennyson died. Many important poets of the day were considered for the post and it was offered to (English author of novels and poetry who was born in India (1865-1936)) Kipling but he refused it. Whether this was because he felt he did not deserve it or he thought it would damage his career is not certain, but in this poem he seems to be reconsidering the offer and contemplating unwelcome responsibility and duty.

The poem shows that, to a large extent, colonial powers relied upon the argument that they were "civilizing" indigenous peoples.
A similar idea is the (Click link for more info and facts about Hamitic Myth) Hamitic Myth. The Hamitic Myth was a (Click link for more info and facts about biblical) biblical rationalization for European exploitation in Africa, based on the supposed biblical lineage of certain African peoples.

[Ozellh20]

Damn good articles, smells like the new world order wicked (censure)... the only reason why europeans were able to advance as much as they could be the perfect the art of

[Akyeame Kwame]

Originally Posted by Ozellh20

Damn good articles, smells like the new world order wicked (censure)... the only reason why europeans were able to advance as much as they could be the perfect the art of

anything for the BlackNificent!

yeah a continuation of their old world disorder...

so the question is how to stop the advance...

AK

[Akyeame Kwame]

American Empire



This article is about a view of the influence by the United States on the rest of the world. For other uses, please see American Empire (disambiguation).

The American Empire is a politically-charged, informal term sometimes used to describe the current political, economic, and cultural influence of the United States on a global scale. It is generally, though by no means always, used with a negative connotation. The current debate over the concept of an American Empire usually involves two basic questions:

1. Is the United States currently an empire?
2. If so, is that good or bad?

Proponents of the term claim that it is an appropriate one, based on the unrivaled superpower status of the United States after the end of the Cold War. Some believe that there has been a long history of United States imperialism expressed in the cultural ethos of Manifest Destiny and American exceptionalism.

Many of America's former colonies have since become independent countries, states of the American union, or self-governing commonwealths. However, despite the fact that these countries are legally independent, the US has often intervened military or otherwise influenced their domestic affairs. Examples of military intervention are the US invasion of the Dominican Republic in 1965 or the invasion of Panama in 1989. An example of non-military intervention in former U.S. colonies are the assassination attempts on Fidel Castro and the CIA-supported Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961.

Literature

There has been much literature in recent years about the current state of what some consider to be the "American Empire."

In American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (2002), Andrew J. Bacevich argues that the end of the Cold War did not mark the end of an era in American history, because (he says) American foreign policy did not fundamentally change after the Cold War. Bacevich argues, like historians Charles Beard and William Appleman Williams before him, that American foreign policy has long been driven by the desire to expand access to foreign markets in order to benefit the domestic economy. Bacevich believes that the moralistic reasons given for American foreign intervention mask the true economic reasons, and he warns that American economic imperialism (in the guise of globalization) may not be in the best interests of the United States.

In the book Empire by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, the USA is seen as central for the development and constitution of a new global regime of international power and sovereignty, termed empire by Hardt and Negri. The book builds on neomarxist, postcolonial, postmodern ideas and globalization theories. Because the empire of Hardt and Negri is decentralized and global, not the rule of one sovereign state over another, it may be differentiated from the American Empire described in this article.

Though many critics and analysis of "American Imperialism" tend to be on the left side of the political spectrum, there are right-wing critics as well. Prominent American paleo-conservative activist Patrick Buchanan discusses American foreign policy in his book A Republic, Not an Empire and argues that the modern United States has betrayed its founding principles by engaging in excessive "meddling" around the world. Buchanan in turn argues that acts of terrorism against the United States, such as the September 11, 2001 attacks are the direct result of America's ill-fated attempts to intervene in places where she should never have been involved in the first place. Buchanan's arguments have been interpreted as the latest form of American isolationism, long a critical counter-voice in American foreign policy discussions.



In his books Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (2003) and Colossus: The Price of America's Empire (2004), historian Niall Ferguson has drawn parallels between the British Empire and the imperial role of the United States in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. However, he describes the United States political and social structures as more like those of the Roman Empire than of the British. In contrast to Hardt and Negri, Ferguson views empire as a neutral description, with both positive and negative aspects.

[Akyeame Kwame]

History of United States imperialism



At its start, the United States was a collection of small colonies on the eastern seaboard with little international import. What was to become the United States had existed for almost two centuries as part of the British Empire. The emergence of independent nations through the American Revolutionary War was a rejection of this colonial relationship. Over the next two centuries the United States first spread across the North American continent and then rose to become the world's most dominant power. Some argue that the means by which the United States expanded and asserted its authority were classic examples of imperialism—the United States was simply in a situation like that of Russia, where it had its empire touching its borders, unlike the European powers who could expand their borders only at the expense of other European countries and otherwise had to go overseas. Such a definition of imperialism could, however, result in a great many countries being defined as "imperialist"—China, Russia, Canada, modern Japan, perhaps even Indonesia, and so on—since it would simply mean that a nation has expanded its territory in some way in the past.
Contents


* 1 Continental expansion
o 1.1 The Louisiana Territory
* 2 The Mexican American War
* 3 The Civil War
* 4 Age of imperialism
o 4.1 Causes
o 4.2 Alaska
o 4.3 Hawaii
o 4.4 The Spanish-American War
o 4.5 The Philippines
o 4.6 Latin America
o 4.7 Asia
* 5 After World War II
o 5.1 Europe
o 5.2 The third world
o 5.3 Iraq
o 5.4 Cultural imperialism
o 5.5 Late 20th century
* 6 Former American colonial possessions
* 7 See also
o 7.1 Ideas
o 7.2 Key figures
o 7.3 Historians
* 8 Related articles
* 9 External links

[edit]

Continental expansion

See also Indian Wars

According to some who argue the U.S. has been imperialistic, the first step on the road to imperialism was the conquest of the Native American peoples who inhabited North America. This view began to be advocated in the 1960s and 1970s by such historians as William Appleman Williams. The American expansion westward had many similarities to European activities in Africa and the first arrivals of Europeans in the Americas. Others argue that there is a difference between expansionism and imperialism. They argue that the American expansion driven by settlers and a need for more land was very different from European imperialism that was primarily a search for raw materials and new markets, with colonization and settlement only an occasional side effect.

And indeed almost every nation on earth is occupied by invaders who wrested territory from previous inhabitants, so the notion that the US began its existence through the conquest of native tribes can be called a truism, since the conquest of one population by another and subsequent change of government/sovereignty is more often than not the very definition of a new country. Otherwise, it must be noted that the United States is no more "imperialistic" on sole account of its relationship to native peoples than such nations as Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, Australia, etc. Therefore, many would argue that while acts of conquest are generally reprehensible, acts of "imperialism" require a more specific and systematic method of exploitation (oppressive and non-mutually-beneficial in nature) and suzerainty over other nations, as opposed to mere territorial aquisition.

This of course in no way refutes other historical instances of US imperialism which are consistent with systematic exploitation...
[edit]

The Louisiana Territory

The Louisiana Purchase, the 1803 transaction of the gigantic western Louisiana Territory from France (Napoleon Bonaparte) to the United States (Thomas Jefferson), is often considered the first major event in American expansion, although it is rarely cited an act of imperialism. However, the Louisiana Government Bill that followed it, although less well-known, is often cited as an early instance of heavy-handedness and hypocrisy in the early United States.
Louisiana and the Louisiana Purchase (Frank bond, 1912)

Louisiana and the Louisiana Purchase (Frank bond, 1912)

After the Louisiana Purchase, Thomas Jefferson signed the Louisiana Government Bill, which denied the new United States territory the right to self-government. Instead, it was to be ruled by military officials under direct orders from the capitol of the Nation. Since most of the population of the territory consisted of non-whites and Catholics, Jefferson felt that the government should suspend its right to self-government until enough white settlers moved west to command a majority. Modern-day critics of this choice point out the irony in the fact that Jefferson, who had decried British denial of American self rule in the Declaration of Independence, was now issuing the orders to deny self-rule in an American territory, issuing commands from half-way across the continent.

Some would argue that the actual owners of the bulk of land was neither France nor the United States but rather the Native Americans who had resided on it for centuries and who were not consulted about this transaction. Others would reply that this would be to apply a 20th century viewpoint to 19th century circumstances, and to assume a concept of ownership of land not actually held by Native Americans
[edit]

The Mexican American War

The Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848 is often viewed as motivated by American imperialism. In 1846, President James K. Polk sent soldiers to the disputed zone between Mexico and the newly annexed Republic of Texas in what most historians describe as a provocation for war. After war broke out, American forces quickly defeated those of Mexico, and in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded its claims on what is now almost the entire Southwest and California to the United States, in exchange for $15 million and the settlement of pending individual claims against Mexico valued at about $3 million.

Many aspects of the war and its aftermath were controversial. A faction called the Continental Democrats had advocated annexing all of Mexico, some arguing that Mexico should be punished for its behavior. Others, largely in the North, denounced the war variously as imperialism and as a pro-slavery stratagem to add more slave territory to the United States.

Today, there is some question over the nature of the Mexican-American war. Most claim that it was aggressive in nature, prompted by Manifest Destiny. Among these, some historians claim that it was simply a grab for more territory, whereas others see it as part of a concerted expansionist movement, reminiscent of imperialism.
[edit]

The Civil War

At the time of the United States Civil War many Southerners looked on the Union's action as imperialistic. Tracing their ideals back to the American Revolution, the Confederacy proclaimed that they had the right to self-government just as young America did in 1776. Some Southerners today still refer to the Civil War as the "War of Northern Aggression."
[edit]

Age of imperialism

See also History of the United States (1865-1918) and New Imperialism and the emerging empires.
Post-Spanish-American War map of "Greater America"

Post-Spanish-American War map of "Greater America"

The late nineteenth century is the era which most historians consider to be that of imperialism. Starting as early as the 1870s the United States began to aggressively expand its influence overseas. The annexation of Hawaii and the fall-out from the Spanish-American War saw the United States very closely adopt the European model of empire. The era also saw the first widespread protest against American imperialism. The population was divided between those that saw the economic and strategic benefits of colonies and those that felt it was counter to America's founding ideology. Noted Americans such as Mark Twain spoke out forcefully against these ventures. The same period saw other notables such as British author Rudyard Kipling advocate the idea of The White Man's Burden to "civilize" the rest of the world.

During this same period the American people continued to strongly chastise the European powers for their imperialism. The Boer War was especially unpopular in the United States and soured Anglo-American relations.
[edit]

Causes
Post Spanish-American War U.S. political cartoon from 1898: "Ten Thousand Miles From Tip to Tip" meaning the extension of U.S. domination (symbolized by a bald eagle) from Puerto Rico to the Philippines. The cartoon contrasts this with a map of the smaller United States 100 years earlier in 1798.

Post Spanish-American War U.S. political cartoon from 1898: "Ten Thousand Miles From Tip to Tip" meaning the extension of U.S. domination (symbolized by a bald eagle) from Puerto Rico to the Philippines. The cartoon contrasts this with a map of the smaller United States 100 years earlier in 1798.

There are two major historical schools of thought as to this period of expansionism. Some historians, notably Samuel F. Bemis, concluded that the imperialism of the 1890s was "the great aberration", a very different form of territorial growth than that of earlier American history. Others, such as Walter LaFeber saw this expansionism not as an aberration but as a culmination of Western United States expansion. In any case, a variety of factors coincided during this period to bring about an accelerated pace of U.S. expansionism:

* The industry and agriculture of the United States had grown beyond its need for consumption. Powerful business and political figures such as James G. Blaine believed that foreign markets were essential to further economic growth, promoting a more aggressive foreign policy
* The prevalence of racism, notably Ernst Haeckel's "biogenic law," John Fiske's conception of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority, and Josiah Strong's call to "civilize and Christianize" - all manifestations of a growing Social Darwinism and racism in American thought
* The development of Frederick Jackson Turner's "Frontier Thesis," which stated that the American frontier was the wellsprings of its creativity and virility as a civilization. As the U.S. West was gradually becoming less of a frontier and more of a part of America, many believed that overseas expansion was vital to maintaining the American spirit
* The publication of Alfred T. Mahan's The Influence of Seapower on History in 1890, which advocated three factors crucial to The United States' solidarity as a world power: the construction of a canal in South America (later influencing the decision for the construction of the Panama Canal), expansion of the U.S. naval power, and the establishment of a trade/military post in the Pacific, so as to stimulate trade with China. This publication had a strong influence on the idea that a strong navy stimulated trade, and influenced policy makers such as Theodore Roosevelt and other proponents of a large navy.

[edit]

Alaska

In 1867 president Andrew Johnson purchased the territory of Alaska from the Russian Empire for seven million dollars -- or two cents per acre ($500/km²). It was the first acquired piece of American territory to not be a direct part of the continental United States. At the time, the purchase of Alaska was roundly criticized, with some calling it "Johnson's polar bear garden," "Seward's Icebox," or "Seward's Folly," for Secretary of State William H. Seward, who negotiated the deal.
[edit]

Hawaii

The Kingdom of Hawaii was long an independent monarchy in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. During the nineteenth century first American missionaries and then American business interests began to play a major role in the island. Most notable were the powerful fruit companies, such as Dole Pineapple. After a coup financed and directed by American interests overthrew the isolationist Queen Lili‘uokalani, the island became a republic in 1894 and in 1898 Hawaiian President Sanford Dole agreed to his nation's annexation by the United States. The republic ended in 1900 and the country became a territory of the US.
[edit]

The Spanish-American War


1899 cartoon. Uncle Sam balances his new possessions, which are depicted as savage children. The figures are identified as Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Cuba, Philippines, and "Ladrones" (the Mariana Islands)
Enlarge
1899 cartoon. Uncle Sam balances his new possessions, which are depicted as savage children. The figures are identified as Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Cuba, Philippines, and "Ladrones" (the Mariana Islands)

With the Spanish-American War the United States greatly increased its international power.

US opponents of the war, including Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie, organised themselves into the American Anti-Imperialist League.

The Spanish-American War took place in 1898. The Treaty of Paris (1898), ended the Spanish-American war, giving the United States possession of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Cuba in exchange for $20 million.'
[edit]

The Philippines

The Philippine-American War (1899 to 1913) is often cited as another instance of United States imperialism. While many Filipinos were initially delighted to be rid of the Spanish rule of the Philippines, the guerrilla fighters soon found that the Americans were not prepared to grant them much more autonomy than Spain had. Thus for the next six years American forces engaged in a war in the jungles of the Philippines against the Filipino resistance. The war was expensive and quite unpopular in the United States, but eventually victory was attained.
General Jacob H. Smith's infamous order "KILL EVERYONE OVER TEN" was the caption in the New York Journal cartoon on May 5, 1902. The Old Glory draped an American shield on which a vulture replaced the bald eagle. The bottom caption exclaimed, "Criminals Because They Were Born Ten Years Before We Took the Philippines."



General Jacob H. Smith's infamous order "KILL EVERYONE OVER TEN" was the caption in the New York Journal cartoon on May 5, 1902. The Old Glory draped an American shield on which a vulture replaced the bald eagle. The bottom caption exclaimed, "Criminals Because They Were Born Ten Years Before We Took the Philippines."
[edit]

Latin America

The early decades of the 20th century saw a great amount of interference in Latin America by the US government, often under the guise of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and most often openly in aid of US corporate interests. President William Howard Taft viewed "Dollar Diplomacy" as a way for American corporations to benefit while assisting in the national security goal of preventing European powers, above all the United Kingdom and Germany, from filling any possible financial or power vacuum. Many argue, however, that this situation amounted to the United States having a de facto empire in the Americas throughout this period.

* 1901: Platt Amendment effectively renders Cuba a protectorate of the United States, putting severe restrictions on the Cuban government's financial freedom, granting the US its base at Guantanamo Bay, and reserving the right of the US to intervene in Cuban affairs. Cuba is also pressured to write the provisions of the Platt Amendment into its constitution.
* 1903: US customs receivership in Haiti following collapse of Haitian government and threats by France and Italy to intervene to collect their debts.
* 1903: US backed independence of Panama from Colombia in order to build the Panama Canal; Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty
* 1904: Theodore Roosevelt announces his "Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the United States would intervene to protect Washington's interests in the Western Hemisphere should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstable.
* 1909: forced resignation of President José Santos Zelaya after triumph of US-backed rebels in Nicaragua
* 1912 to 1933: US occupation of Nicaragua
* 1914 to 1916: Mexico conflict, including US troops occupying north of the country and port city of Veracruz
* 1915 to 1934: US occupation of Haiti

[edit]

Asia

While American intervention had begun earlier with Matthew Perry forcibly opening Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, this period saw the United States expand its presence in Asia. The US pushed through the Open Door Policy that guaranteed its economic access to China. It also vigorously acquired small islands in the Pacific, mostly to be used as coaling stations.

Not long before the turn of the century, China was divided into what some call "spheres of influence" - areas to which a European nation (some involved were Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia) had claimed exclusive trading rights, or even the territory itself. The United States, having recently captured the Philippines and thereby becoming a power in Asia, was eager to reap its own benefits from China, but felt impeded by these "spheres of influence". In an effort to eliminate this hindrance, John Hay, secretary of state at the time (under William McKinley), sent letters to European leaders suggesting an "open door" policy in China, one that would grant equivalent trading rights to all powers inside the spheres of influence. The proposal was gently rejected. Following the Boxer rebellion, John Hay called again for an expanded "open door" policy effective throughout China, not just within "spheres of influence". The United States and the European powers agreed to preserve Chinese independence and government, but continued to use the country for monetary gain until World War II.

Critics contend that US policy was for open-trade and not imperialist.
[edit]

After World War II

After helping defeat Nazi Germany, the United States occupied the Western sector of Germany (West Germany) for ten years, 1945 to 1955. More intense was the occupation of Japan from 1945 to 1951, during which time the US occupation force, led by General Douglas MacArthur staged a dramatic restructuring of Japanese society in order to prevent the nation from re-emerging as a military threat.

As with most aspects of American imperialism these more recent events are still disputed (especially in the United States itself) as many believe that they were not imperialist in nature. Many of the post war actions were implemented as the result of Cold War policy and anti-Communism feelings, which were the basis of much of the United States foreign policy. During this period the United States actively intervened in the politics of many nations, usually on the stated grounds to prevent the expansion of the influences of the Soviet Union, which quite openly employed imperialistic policies.

Some critics alleged that the United States' adversary to the Soviet Union and anti-Communist paranoia was causing the American government to become needlessly imperialistic, and was either propping up or overthrowing foreign regimes on often questionable grounds or suspicions. Other critics, especially those on the far left went even farther, alleging that the threat of Communist / Soviet expansion was a largely non-existent, and that the United States was simply meddling in the affairs of other states for more openly imperialistic purposes, such as gaining control of resources, land, or military bases.

This left wing thought became prominent in the 1960s and 1970s, mostly as a result of the backlash against the Vietnam War. Leading advocates of this new anti-imperialism included Noam Chomsky, Chalmers Johnson, and Tariq Ali.

The most notable aspects of this period tend to be American military interventions in areas such as Vietnam, Grenada, and Iraq. Many would argue, however, that cultural and economic imperialism had far greater effects.
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Europe

During the 1960s and 1970s it became fashionable to view the Soviet empire in eastern Europe as comparable to the American domination of western Europe. It was argued that through economic and military pressure the United States pursued hegemony just as aggressively as the Soviet Union. The post-revisionist school, which since the fall of the USSR has come to dominate the study of Cold War history, has rejected this view. They argue that the full extent of Soviet aggression has become apparent after the opening of their archives. See historiography of the Cold War for more.
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The third world

During the Cold War the United States maintained an active presence in many third-world nations, especially in the form of spy groups and intelligence-gathering agencies. These groups often earned a reputation for active meddling in a country's government, and in some cases were blamed for orchestrating coups or assassinations that occurred.

The number of times that the U.S. has intervened in foreign nations since 1945 is too great to be included in this article. For a full list, see List of U.S. foreign interventions since 1945. Many of these interventions have been denounced by some as imperialist.
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Iraq

There is evidence from declassified British Cabinet papers, published in The Guardian in 1994, that the CIA and MI6 both provided backing for the 1963 military coup of Colonel Abdul Salam Arif which overthrew Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim. Qassim had attempted to nationalise the Iraq Petroleum Co, of which US companies were major shareholders and to assert Iraqi rights to the territory of Kuwait. Following the coup both these policies, which were disapproved of by the USA & UK governments were dropped.
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Cultural imperialism

Since the end of the Second World War the United States has been dominant in most of the cultural industries, and has often been accused of cultural imperialism. American movies, television, food, and music are popular throughout the world. Many argue that this serves to inculcate populations with American values while at the same time destroying indigenous cultures. This is often of greatest concern in other developed nations such as France and Canada. However, American cultural imperialism can not be considered intentional on the part of the United States government, as it has no significant role in these industries. The lack of government role or investment in these industries makes the spread of American movies, food and so on, more of a side-effect of capitalism and foreign consumers' own desire for American culture than of the U.S. itself pushing it out to them.

In fact, it can even be argued that for any nation to seek to "preserve" (viewable as a euphemism for "impose") a national cultural identity for its citizens, by openly condemning external "interference" in native cultures, and opposing the freedom of individuals to arbitrarily desire, select, and mix cultures, or adopt foreign ones, with the aim of maintaining a perceived ideal of national cultural "purity," is an attitude best described as Cultural Fascism.

Proponents of this view argue that not only is "Cultural Imperialism" a misnomer and an intellectually invalid concept, but is by nature a culturally fascist accusation/retort against cosmopolitanism, and is ultimately racist. This is part of a larger world view known as Circular Political Theory (the farther you go to the extreme left, the closer you come to the extreme right, and vice versa), which interprets so-called "anti-imperialist" movements and the "new leftism" as merely superficial reworkings of classic fascism.
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Late 20th century

While for most of the United States' history imperialism has been a term used by critics to decry American policies, in recent years some have adopted the view that some forms of imperialism are desirable. Michael Ignatieff argues that American interventions should enforce intrinsic notions of human rights, and should have a form of "Empire Light" to do so. On the right-wing there are now thinkers who believe the United States should aggressively pursue a sort of democratic imperialism, these include Paul Wolfowitz and William Kristol.
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Former American colonial possessions

The following areas have at one time or another been under the control of the United States of America and have not been fully incorporated into the country as states.

* American Samoa (1900-)
* Cuba (1899-1902)
o (now independent; however, Guantanamo Bay remains under the control of the U.S. military)
* Dominican Republic ( occupied 1916-1924) (now independent)
* Guam (1898- )
* Haiti ( occupied 1915-1934)
* Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1944-1990)
o (now comprising the independent states of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau; as well as one US commonwealth — the Northern Mariana Islands)
* Panama Canal Zone (1903-1979) (now part of Panama)
* Philippines (1898-1946) (now independent)
* Puerto Rico (1898-1952) (now a US commonwealth)
* U.S. Virgin Islands (1917-)

[Akyeame Kwame]

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